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1　An Introduction to Sociolinguistics1

1.1　What is Sociolinguistics?1

1.2　History of Sociolinguistics in the West5

1.3　Language and Society9

1.3.1　Language as Social Behavior10

1.3.2　Language as a Communicative Means11

1.3.3　Language as an Information System12

1.4　Sociolinguistics and English Learning15

1.5　Summary18

2　Language Change20

2.1　Introduction20

2.1.1　Linguistic Item20

2.1.2　Variety21

2.1.3　Linguistic Variable22

2.1.4　Speech Community24

2.1.5　Networks and Repertoires26

2.2　Forms of Language Change28

2.2.1　Phonological Change29

2.2.2　Morphological Changes29

2.2.3　Lexical Semantic Change31

2.2.4　Grammatical Change35

2.3　Nature of Change36

2.3.1　Internal and External Change36

2.3.2　Family Tree37

2.3.3　Wave Diffusion38

2.4　Factors of Change40

2.4.1　Imitation of the Prestigious41

2.4.2　Slang and Dialects41

2.4.3　Simplification43

2.4.4　Politeness43

2.4.5　Stratum Terms44

2.5　General Conclusions45

3　Language Variety Space47

3.1　Language and Dialect47

3.1.1　Dialecte and Patois48

3.1.2　Size and Prestige49

3.1.3　Social and Political Factors50

3.1.4　Dialect and Intelligibility51

3.2　Standard Languages53

3.2.1 Standardization54

3.2.2　Historicity and Vitality56

3.2.3　Autonomy and Acceptance57

3.2.4　Reduction and Mixture57

3.3　Pidgin and Creole58

3.3.1　Lingua Francas59

3.3.2　Pidgins60

3.3.3　Creoles63

3.3.4　Theories of Origin65

3.4　Language Loss and Revival68

3.5　General Conclusions72

4　Language and Gender74

4.1　Male/Female Language74

4.1.1 Male/Female Lexical Forms75

4.1.2　Male/Female Language Differences76

4.2　Sexism in Languages84

4.2.1　Marked and Unmarked Terms85

4.2.2　Female Vocabulary87

4.2.3　Sexist Language87

4.3　Sex Differences and Possible Reasons89

4.3.1　Social Division of Labour90

4.3.2　Social Prejudice90

4.3.3　Power and Control91

4.3.4　Role Relations91

4.4　Language Bias in English92

4.5　General Conclusion94

5　Varieties in the English World97

5.1　English and Social Class97

5.1.1 Class and Status98

5.1.2　Social Class and Language Variation99

5.1.3 Social Status and'Prestige'Norms104

5.2　Black English in America106

5.2.1　Characteristics of Black English107

5.2.2　Three Views on Black English111

5.3　American English112

5.3.1　History of American English112

5.3.2 Characteristics of American English114

5.3.3　American English and British English118

5.4 Good English and Bad English122

5.5 Summary126

6 Language and Context128

6.1 Context Views128

6.2 Linguistic Context130

6.2.1 Conceptual Meaning130

6.2.2 Grammatical Meaning132

6.2.3 Topic Meaning134

6.2.4 Collocative Meaning135

6.3 Non-linguistic Context136

6.3.1 Cultural Meaning136

6.3.2 Stylistic Meaning137

6.3.3 Status Meaning138

6.3.4 Temporal and Spatial Meaning139

6.4 Style of English in Application141

6.4.1 Style141

6.4.2 English in Advertisements142

6.4.3 Features in Political English144

6.5 Register146

6.5.1 Context and Register146

6.5.2 Features of Register150

6.6 Summary152

7 Cultural Variety of Language155

7.1 Language and Culture155

7.2 Linguistic and Cultural Relativity156

7.2.1 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis156

7.2.2 Reaction to Linguistic and Cultural Relativity158

7.3 Address Forms and Culture165

7.3.1 Kinship Term and Kinship System165

7.3.2 Social Address169

7.4 Jargon,Taboo ＆ Euphemism179

7.4.1 Jargon179

7.4.2 Taboo181

7.4.3 Euphemism186

8 Language Contact192

8.1 Diglossia192

8.1.1 Definitions of Diglossia192

8.1.2 Features of Diglossia193

8.1.3 Extended Meanings of Diglossia195

8.2 Bilinguals ＆ Bilingualism198

8.2.1 Descriptive Analysis of Bilingualism198

8.2.2 Bilingual Competence200

8.3 Code Choosing and Code Switching202

8.3.1 Code Switching202

8.3.2 Code-Mixing204

8.3.3 Attitudes to Code Switching and Code Mixing206

8.4 Concluding Remarks208

9 Configurations of Language211

9.1 Spoken and Written Language211

9.2 Differences and Similarities Between the Two Modalifies212

9.3 Confinua from Written to Spoken214

9.4 Variation Across Speech and Writing216

9.5 Literacy and Literacies218

9.6 General Conclusions225

10 Communicative Use of Language229

10.1 Ethnography of Speaking229

10.1.1 Descriptive Analysis of Speaking230

10.1.2 The Norms Governing Speech232

10.2 Speech Acts and the Cooperative Principle233

10.2.1 Properties of Speech Acts233

10.2.2 Indirect Speech Acts236

10.2.3 Conversational Maxims239

10.3 Conversational Structure and Strategies241

10.3.1 Adjacency Pairs242

10.3.2 Tum-taking243

10.3.3 Openings,Topics and Closings245

10.4 Face and Politeness247

10.4.1 The Face Theory247

10.4.2 Politeness Principle249

10.5 Concluding Remarks251

Bibliography254